Atoms: Nucleus(Protons, Neutrons), Electrons;

Elements: all one type of atom (Gold, Carbon, Uranium, etc), Periodic Table

Properties: Electron Structure (configuration)

Chemical (electron) Bonds

Homogeneous

Naturally Occurring

Solid

Inorganic

“Fixed” or limited composition (chemical composition) SiO₂ (quartz), NaCl(salt), Al₂O₃(ruby)

Crystal Lattice Structure

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma (below the surface) or lava (above the surface).

Sedimentary rocks are made up of particles derived from the breakdown of pre-existing rocks.  Lithification is the process that changes unconsolidated deposits into rock.

Metamorphic rocks have changed their form due to exposure to pressure, heat, and/or chemically active fluids.

Over 3,000 different minerals that have been classified.  Some minerals are much more abundant than others.
(It is extraordinary that the total number of minerals is a mere 3700, or so; compared with more than ten million different chemical compounds. There are even four million species of insects, of which 300,000 are beetles. This fact prompted J B S Haldane to remark that he didn't know much about the nature of God, except that He was "inordinately fond of beetles"! )

Just 10 elements make up 99% (by weight) of the Earth's crust.  These are O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, Ti, H.

Most (74.3%) of the minerals in the Earth's crust contain Oxygen (O) and Silicon (Si).

Silicate mineral family (minerals having the ion SiO₄) compose 90% of all rock forming minerals.

X-ray diffraction (determines crystal structure)

Mass spectrometry (determines composition)

Magnetic (ferromagnetism) - is it attracted to a permanent magnet?

Fluorescence - becomes luminescent during exposure to UV or IR light.

Phosphorescence - stays luminescent even after exposure to UV or IR light.

Pyroelectricity - temperature changes will cause charges to build up on the surface.

Piezoelectricity - pressure changes will cause charges to build up on the surface.

Solubility - does it effervesce in dilute HCl acid?  (Carbonate minerals usually do effervesce.)

Fusibility - can an intense heat (flame) cause two samples to fuse together? 

Fracture - minerals can break in distinctive ways that are different than cleavage.

Tenacity - resistance to breaking when exposed to mechanical stress.

Solidification of a melt (water > ice)

Precipitation from a saturated solution (geode)

Solid-state diffusion (very slow)

Euhedral: uninhibited crystal growth, well formed crystal faces

Anhedral: restricted crystal growth, truncated crystal faces

Melting

Dissolving

Other Chemical Reactions (rust/oxidation)

Native Metals/Elements – Copper, Gold, Silver, Diamond, Sulfur

Silicates – [X+SiO₄ ] MgSiO₄ (Olivine), SiO₂ (Quartz)

Oxides – [X +O, O₂, O₃, etc] Fe₃O₄ (Magnetite), Fe₂O₃ (Hematite), Al₂O₃ (Ruby/Corundum)

Sulfides – [X + S, S₂, S₃, etc] PbS (Galena), FeS₂ (Pyrite)

Sulfates – [X + SO₄] CaSO₄ (Gypsum)

Halides – [X + Cl, I, Br, F, Halogen] NaCl (Rock Salt), CaF₂ (Fluorite)

Carbonates – [X + CO₃] CaCO₃ (Calcite), CaMg(CO₃)₂ (Dolomite)

Phosphates – [X + PO₄] Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH,F,Cl) (Apatite)

Hydroxides – [X + H₂O] Al₂O₃ (2H₂O) (Bauxite)

Metallic - Fe, Al, Chromium, Tin, Uranium, Silver, Mercury, Gold

Nonmetallic - Salt, Building Stones (or Dimension Stones), Sand and Gravel, Phosphorus, Sulfur

Open-pit or "Strip" mining is carried out at the surface and digs down removing the overlaying material.

Underground mining involves tunneling into the earth and removing material.  Usually consists of mine shafts down to a horizontal layer of ore being removed.

Placer mining usually involves the separation of valuable metals or nonmetals from unconsolidated material near the surface.  Bauxite, the principle ore of aluminum, is often extracted this way.